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Authors
Oshio, Takashi
Ping, Ruru
Honda, Ayako
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (23K01419)
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (23H00049)
Health Labour Sciences Research (24BA1002)
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Article History
Received: 6 May 2025
Accepted: 10 December 2025
First Online: 18 December 2025
Declarations
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: We used data of the “Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions” (CSLC) with permission from the Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare (MHLW). The CSLC is authorized by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, which oversees all government surveys in Japan, ensuring compliance with statistical, legal, and ethical standards in accordance with the Statistics Law in Japan. Therefore, ethics approval or consent to participate was not required for this study.
: Not applicable.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
