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Article History

Received: 21 August 2024

Accepted: 6 January 2025

First Online: 4 February 2025

Declarations

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: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Both authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

: The article critiques the dominant use of animal testing in scientific research, arguing that the historical justification, rooted in figures like Rudolf Virchow’s 19th-century principles, is now outdated due to advancements in non-animal methodologies such as organoids, 3D cultures, and computational models. These technologies offer scientifically robust and ethically viable alternatives, challenging the adequacy of the 3Rs (Reduction, Refinement, Replacement) framework. Citing ethical theories from Nussbaum and Korsgaard, the article argues for a paradigm shift that values animals as beings with intrinsic worth, rather than instruments for human benefit, suggesting that the moral and scientific imperatives for replacement are stronger than ever.