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Article History

Received: 9 October 2025

Accepted: 1 June 2026

First Online: 10 June 2026

Declarations

:

: All enrolled patients and participants provided written informed consent. Detailed information can be found in References 21, and 29–41. Specifically, the ethical clearance for the accession PRJNA706060 was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, PRJNA706060 was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, PRJNA961076 was approved by Biodonostia Health Research Institute/Donostia University Hospital Ethics Committee, PRJNA731589 was approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Life Science of Fudan University and Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center (No. 1809191-7), PRJNA758208 was approved by the Ethical Committee of the Seventh Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital (No. 2020-091), PRJDB4176 was approved by the National Cancer Center (No. 2013–244) and Tokyo Institute of Technology (No. 2014018), PRJNA763023 was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, PRJEB10878 was approved by the Joint Chinese University of Hong Kong-New Territories East Cluster Clinical Research Ethics Committee, PRJEB6070 was approved by the Comité Consultatif de Protection des Personnes dans la Recherche Biomédicale and the ethics committee of the Medical Faculty at the University of Heidelberg, PRJEB7774 was approved by the ethics committee of Ethikkommission des Landes Salzburg (No. 415-E/1262/2-2010), PRJEB12449 was approved by the Office of Human Subjects Research at the National Institutes of Health, PRJNA389927 was approved by the University of Michigan Institutional Review Board, PRJNA447983 was approved by the Ethics Committee of Azienda Ospedaliera ‘SS. Antonio e Biagio e C. Arrigo’ of Alessandria, Italy (No. Colorectal_miRNA_CEC2014) and Ethics Committee of European Institute of Oncology of Milan, Italy (No. R107/14-IEO 118), PRJEB70916 was approved by Ethical committee in the Ile de France-Est medical district and Assistance Publique Hopitaux de Paris (No. 09-2016), and CNP0002641 was approved by the Ethics Committees in the Dalian University Affiliated Xinhua Hospital (No. 2022–04–01). The experiment was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.