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Article History

Received: 6 June 2026

Accepted: 7 July 2026

First Online: 20 July 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: All the animal studies were performed with approval of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at UCSF (Protocol approval number: AN199625-00B). The experiments were conducted in compliance with the National Institutes of Health guidelines on the use of laboratory animals and the Department of Defense Animal Care and Use Review Office. All human participant study procedures were approved by the University of California, San Francisco Institutional Review Board and the Department of Defense Human Research Protection Office. Under an IRB-approved waiver of consent (IRB 19-29291), all whole-blood LPEV functional assays were performed in real time immediately after blood collection in the Emergency Department (ED). For injured patients, blood samples were collected under an IRB-approved waiver of informed consent because samples were obtained during emergency trauma resuscitation, the research posed minimal risk, and participants were frequently unable to provide consent at the time of enrollment. Injured patients or their legally authorized representatives were subsequently informed of study participation and given the opportunity to consent to continued clinical data collection when feasible. Written informed consent was obtained from all healthy volunteer control participants prior to participation.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Conflict of interest: MF is Chief Scientific Officer at Cellphire Therapeutics. BK and MM are employees of Cellphire.