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Article History

Received: 2 April 2026

Accepted: 27 July 2026

First Online: 19 August 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: The patient cohorts and associated clinical data analyzed in this study were partly obtained from publicly available databases, including TCGA, GEO, and UCSC Xena. As these data are publicly accessible and de-identified, the requirement for local ethical approval was waived, and their use adhered to the data access policies of the respective databases. For the experimental validation, the collection and use of human LUAD tissue samples were approved by the Ethics Committee of The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University (Approval No.: KY2026007). The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all participating patients prior to sample collection.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process: ChatGPT (OpenAI) was used solely for language polishing. All content was reviewed and approved by the authors.

Authors’ information: Not applicable.

Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.