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Authors
Barman, Bhavana https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7952-9892
Choudhury, Hari K. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8815-727X
Jajodia, Babita https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2479-930X
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Article History
Received: 9 June 2025
Accepted: 8 December 2025
First Online: 15 December 2025
Declarations
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: This study used fully anonymized, secondary data from the fifth round of India’s National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), conducted in 2019–21 by the International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. Because the NFHS-5 dataset is publicly available upon request through the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Program website ( ), no additional ethical approval was required for our secondary analysis. The original survey procedures were overseen and approved by the IIPS ethics review board.
: Not applicable.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
