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Authors
R. S., Reshmi https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2551-0990
Chattopadhyay, Aparajita https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1722-4268
Kumar, Gulshan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2762-6658
Dwivedi, Sumit Narayan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8417-7844
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (INV-047356)
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (INV-047356)
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Article History
Received: 7 July 2025
Accepted: 18 March 2026
First Online: 30 March 2026
Declarations
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: This study is based on secondary analysis of anonymized data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4, 2015–16 and NFHS-5, 2019–21). Ethical approval for the original surveys was obtained by the International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, and relevant national ethical review committees. The datasets are publicly available and contain no identifiable information; therefore, no additional ethical approval was required for the present analysis.
: Informed consent was obtained from all participants by the NFHS implementing agencies at the time of data collection. Participation was voluntary, and respondents’ confidentiality was strictly maintained.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
