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Authors
Razakh, Ayesha https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0341-7896
Walker, Mark David https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1650-3222
Valko, Michal https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8593-7765
Lane, Hakan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6113-9637
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Article History
Received: 15 January 2026
Accepted: 20 May 2026
First Online: 1 July 2026
Declarations
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: The study utilized secondary data from the European Social Survey (ESS Round 11). The dataset is fully anonymized and publicly available for research purposes. No personally identifiable information is included, and all data collection procedures were conducted in accordance with rigorous ethical standards by the ESS. The ESS is a cross-national survey involving human subjects, it operates under the ESS ERIC Research Ethics Committee and complies with the GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation). All ESS respondents are informed about the nature of the survey, that their participation is voluntary, and that they may withdraw at any time. Informed consent is obtained from all participants prior to the interview .
: The ESS is designed as a public good. Data is free for non-commercial use ( ).
: The authors declare no competing interests.
