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Article History

Received: 19 June 2025

Accepted: 8 December 2025

First Online: 7 January 2026

Declarations

:

: Ethical approval was not sought for the present study because it is a retrospective review exclusively using public domain data. Consent to participate was not sought because there were no human participants and no personally identifiable data are involved.

: All of the authors of this paper are currently or have in the past been engaged in delivering the independent evaluation of the UK Fleming Fund. The independent evaluation of the UK Fleming Fund is delivered under contract between the UK Department of Health and Social Care (DHSC) and Itad Ltd. Authors’ engagement for these purposes is as follows: Archie Drake, Syed Abbas, Rebecca Maudling, Ankur Gupta-Wright and Tim Shorten are independent consultants currently engaged by Itad under contract. Isabel Sassoon and Alan Serrano-Rico have received funding from Itad Ltd. through Brunel Talent Marketplace (a non-profit division of Brunel University). Jennifer Armitage is currently engaged by LAMP Development Ltd under subcontract from Itad Ltd. Anila Shafa is a current employee of Itad Ltd. The objectives of this study are consistent with the scope of the independent evaluation of the UK Fleming Fund. In addition to the interests detailed above. Tim Shorten is an editor for Globalization and Health.