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Article History

Received: 19 December 2024

Accepted: 5 February 2025

First Online: 12 February 2025

Declarations

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: This study did not involve any human participants, human data, or human tissue, nor did it include animal experiments requiring ethical approval. All data and findings presented are derived from a comprehensive review of previously published literature and secondary sources. Therefore, no specific ethical approval was required for this study. However, for studies involving animal models referenced in this review, it is important to emphasize the ethical considerations regarding their use. The ethical use of animals in research is governed by strict guidelines, including the 3Rs principle—Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement. These principles aim to minimize animal use, optimize experimental design to reduce animal suffering, and replace animal models with alternative methods whenever possible. In this context, alternative technologies such as 3D culture systems and organ-on-a-chip models are emerging as powerful tools for mimicking in vivo conditions without the need for live animal testing. These technologies offer a promising approach to advancing research in a more ethical and humane manner while maintaining scientific rigor. For the studies cited in this review that involved animal or human subjects, the original authors confirm that all ethical guidelines and institutional requirements, including informed consent where applicable, were strictly adhered to as per the Declaration of Helsinki or relevant national ethical frameworks. It is critical that experimental findings derived from animal or human models are not only ethically obtained but also carefully interpreted when translated into clinical settings. The implications of these findings for clinical research should always be considered within the broader context of patient welfare, ethical treatment, and the potential for translating laboratory results into safe and effective therapies.

: All authors have read and approved the final manuscript in its entirety.

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This is a review article, and no new materials were generated or used in this study.

: All figures included in this article were designed and created by the authors to represent the discussed concepts visually. These figures are original and not adapted or reproduced from third-party sources, ensuring no copyright infringement. The authors retain full rights to their figures.