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Article History

Received: 27 November 2025

Accepted: 4 May 2026

First Online: 23 May 2026

Declarations

:

: We did not collect primary data for these secondary data analyses Therefore, an ethical approval was not required. This study uses secondary data from the German NEPS cohort study. The NEPS study is conducted under the supervision of the German Federal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information (BfDI) and in coordination with the German Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK) and – in the case of surveys at schools – the Educational Ministries of the respective Federal States. All data collection procedures, instruments and documents were checked by the data protection unit of the Leibniz Institute for Educational Trajectories (LIfBi). The necessary steps are taken to protect participants’ confidentiality according to national and international regulations of data security. Participation in the NEPS study is voluntary and based on the informed consent of participants. This consent to participate in the NEPS study can be revoked at any time.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.