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Authors
Shen, Chan
Li, Ning
Oh, John S.
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Article History
Received: 8 May 2025
Accepted: 13 October 2025
First Online: 5 November 2025
Declarations
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: This retrospective observational study used only de-identified data from the Trauma Quality Programs Public Use File (TQP PUF). The study was conducted in accordance with relevant institutional and national guidelines and regulations, and with the Declaration of Helsinki. The Penn State University Institutional Review Board (IRB) determined the project to be exempt from ethics approval because it involved analysis of de-identified public data; therefore, informed consent was not required and was not sought.
: Not applicable.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
