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Article History

Received: 30 November 2025

Accepted: 3 March 2026

First Online: 10 March 2026

Declarations

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: The work was performed using established human cell lines and does not involve human participants, animal experiments, or data collected from social media platforms. All research procedures involving human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) were conducted at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), following review and approval by the KAUST Institutional Biosafety and Bioethics Committee (IBEC). KAUST IBEC, as the local ethics committee registered with the National Committee of Bioethics (NCBE) of Saudi Arabia, fulfills the role of an Embryonic Stem Cell Research Oversight (ESCRO) committee. The H1 human embryonic stem cell (hESC) line used in this study was obtained from the WiCell Research Institute under Material Transfer Agreement 19-W0398. Informed consent was obtained from all original donors by the provider institution at the time of derivation. No human embryos or gametes were collected for this study. The human colorectal cancer cell line RKO was purchased from ATCC and cultured according to the supplier’s instructions. As a commercially available and anonymized cell line, its use does not require additional ethical approval or informed consent.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.