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Article History

Received: 2 June 2025

Accepted: 31 July 2025

First Online: 30 September 2025

Declarations

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: All human data used in this study were obtained from open-access databases, and all participants provided informed consent at the time of data collection. For detailed information regarding the ethical approval and consent procedures, please refer to the original publications associated with each dataset.

: P.C has no conflict of interest to declare. B.M has no conflict of interest to declare. F.M has no conflict of interest to declare. S.M-O has no conflict of interest to declare. J-V. M has no conflict of interest to declare. Independent of this work, NV received research support from Fondation Bettencourt-Schueller, Fondation Servier, Union Nationale pour les Intérêts de la Médecine (UNIM), Fondation Claude Pompidou, Fondation Alzheimer, Banque Publique d’Investissement, Lion’s Club Alzheimer and Fondation pour la Recherche sur l’Alzheimer; travel grant from the Movement Disorders Society, Merz-Pharma, UCB Pharma, and GE Healthcare SAS; is an unpaid local principal investigator or sub-investigator in NCT05531526 (AR1001, AriBio), NCT06079190 (AL101, GSK), NCT04241068 and NCT05310071 (aducanumab, Biogen), NCT05399888 (BIIB080, Biogen), NCT03352557 (gosuranemab, Biogen), NCT04592341 (gantenerumab, Roche), NCT03887455 (lecanemab, Eisai), NCT03828747 and NCT03289143 (semorinemab, Roche), NCT04619420 (JNJ-63733657, Janssen – Johnson & Johnson), NCT06544616 (JNJ-64042056, Janssen – Johnson & Johnson), NCT04374136 (AL001, Alector), NCT04592874 (AL002, Alector), NCT04867616 (bepranemab, UCB Pharma), NCT04777396 and NCT04777409 (semaglutide, Novo Nordisk), NCT05469360 (NIO752, Novartis), NCT06647498 (remternetug, Washington University School of Medicine); is the French national coordinator in NCT05564169 (VHB937, Novartis); has given unpaid lectures in symposia organized by Eisai and the Servier Foundation; has been an unpaid expert for Janssen – Johnson & Johnson, Eli-Lilly, Novartis. During the past 3 years, VP was a local unpaid investigator or sub-investigator for clinical trials granted by NovoNordisk, Biogen, Janssen and Alector. He received consultant fees for MRI studies in animals from Motac Neuroscience Ltd, outside the submitted work.