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Article History

Received: 22 October 2025

Accepted: 21 January 2026

First Online: 11 February 2026

Declarations

:

: All participants gave written informed consent and all procedures were approved by the local Institutional Review Boards (IRB) of the participating sites in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. For or up-to-date information and information regarding subject recruitment, inclusion and exclusion criteria and procedures for serum sample collection see .

: Not applicable.

: PO received research support from the ALS Association/ALS Finding A Cure (24-SGP-691, 23-PPG-674–2)), Charcot Foundation (D.7090), DZNE Innovation-to-Application (I2A_call9_Oeckl), EU Horizon Europe (SYNAPSING), consulting fees from LifeArc and Fundamental Pharma and travel support from Biogen. SAR received research support from the Medical Faculty of Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg (Clinician Scientist Programm No. CS22/06). MO received research support from German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (FTLDc 01GI1007A), the EU Joint Programme-Neurodegenerative Diseases networks Genfi-Prox (01ED2008A), the EU (MOODMARKER 01EW2008), the German Research Foundation/DFG (SFB1279), the foundation of the state Baden-Württemberg (D.3830), Boehringer Ingelheim Ulm University BioCenter (D.5009), EU Horizon Europe (SYNAPSING), and the Thierry Latran Foundation. MO and PO are co-inventors of a patent application for using β-synuclein measurement in blood (EP4014048A1, US2022283184A1). The other authors declare that they have no competing interests.