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Article History

Received: 11 April 2026

Accepted: 4 June 2026

First Online: 13 June 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: The current study represents a secondary analysis of a de-identified database with no contact with participants; therefore, it was submitted to and approved by the University of Nevada, Las Vegas Institutional Review Board for administrative review of exempt research (UNLV#2024 − 245). This study was conducted in accordance with applicable institutional policies and federal regulations, including 45 CFR 46 and the HIPAA Privacy Rule, and adhered to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Competing interests: Competing interests JLC has provided consultation to Acadia, Acumen, ALZpath, AnnovisBio, Artery, Axsome, Biogen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eisai, Fosun, GAP Foundation, Hummingbird Diagnostics, IGC, Janssen, Julius Clinical, Kinoxis, Lilly, LSP/EQT, Merck, MoCA Cognition, Novo Nordisk, NSC Therapeutics, Otsuka, ReMYND, Roche, Scottish Brain Sciences, Signant Health, Simcere, Sinaptica, and T-Neuro pharmaceutical, assessment, and investment companies. HZ has served at scientific advisory boards and/or as a consultant for Abbvie, Acumen, Alamar, Alector, Alzinova, ALZpath, Amylyx, Annexon, Apellis, Artery Therapeutics, AZTherapies, Cognito Therapeutics, CogRx, Denali, Eisai, Enigma, LabCorp, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Merry Life, Nervgen, Novo Nordisk, Optoceutics, Passage Bio, Pinteon Therapeutics, Prothena, Quanterix, Red Abbey Labs, reMYND, Roche, Samumed, ScandiBio Therapeutics AB, Siemens Healthineers, Triplet Therapeutics, and Wave, has given lectures sponsored by Alzecure, BioArctic, Biogen, Cellectricon, Fujirebio, LabCorp, Lilly, Novo Nordisk, Oy Medix Biochemica AB, Roche, and WebMD, is a co-founder of Brain Biomarker Solutions in Gothenburg AB (BBS), which is a part of the GU Ventures Incubator Program, and is a shareholder of CERimmune Therapeutics (outside submitted work). The other authors report no competing interests. Funding CB has received research funding from the UFC, Top Rank Promotions, Haymon Boxing, and Bellator Promotions. MLA reports honoraria from the Michael J. Fox Foundation for services unrelated to this work, royalties from Oxford University Press Inc., and research support from Life Molecular Imaging Inc. JLC is supported by NIGMS grant P20GM109025, NIA R35AG71476, NIA R25AG083721, and NINDS R01NS139383, as well as funding from the Alzheimer’s Disease Drug Discovery Foundation, the Ted and Maria Quirk Endowment, and the Joy Chambers-Grundy Endowment. DIAGNOSE CTE was supported by NINDS U01NS093334. PABHS is supported by philanthropic grants from the Ultimate Fighting Championship, Top Rank Boxing, and Haymon Boxing. HZ is a Wallenberg Scholar and a Distinguished Professor at the Swedish Research Council supported by grants from the Swedish Research Council (#2023-00356, #2022-01018 and #2019-02397), the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 101053962, and Swedish State Support for Clinical Research (#ALFGBG-71320). The remaining authors report no relevant funding.