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Article History

Received: 15 May 2026

Accepted: 7 August 2026

First Online: 15 August 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: The brain samples were provided by the London Neurodegenerative Diseases Brain Bank and the Oxford Brain Bank, both approved by the City and East NRES committee (08/H0704/128+5) under the project title “Identification of a novel signalling molecule common to development and neurodegeneration” (REF 07/Q1605/16). All experiments were conducted in compliance with the Human Tissue Act and other laws involving postmortem tissue.For CSF collection, all participants were recruited at the Alzheimer's Disease and Other Cognitive Disorders Unit, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona (Barcelona, Spain). The HCB Ethics Committee approved the study (HCB 2023/0705), and all the participants signed informed consent. The ethical permission for the storage and handling of human CSF was provided by Hospital Clinic de Barcelona as a supplier of live human CSF. For immunohistochemistry cases were selected from tissue collected by the Sydney Brain Bank, which has ethical approval to collect, characterise, store and distribute brain tissue for research into ageing and neurodegeneration (UNSW ethics approval HC200026). Informed consent was obtained for all donations.

Competing interests: JK, SR, TS, SH, and SGR are employees of Neuro-Bio Ltd. MB is a visitor of Neuro-Bio. JO is an employee of Oxford Biostatistics Ltd. HM and CS are employees of NeuRA: Neuroscience Research Australia.  SG is the founder and CEO of Neuro-Bio Limited and holds shares in the Company.