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Article History

Received: 26 June 2025

Accepted: 13 September 2025

First Online: 8 October 2025

Declarations

:

: Equine eMSCs were isolated at Colorado State University (Colorado, US) under ethics approval of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (title: “Production of equine fetally-derived mesenchymal stem cells and isolation and characterization of their extracellular vesicles”; approval number: 4443; approval date: 17 April 2023). Equine cord blood was obtained under informed owner consent at Irish stud farms, and CB-MSCs were isolated at University of Galway (Galway, Ireland). Ethical approval was not required because the blood was collected from peripartum waste material by non-invasive means for the mare or the foal. Equine BM-MSCs were obtained at the University of Zaragoza (Zaragoza, Spain) under ethics approval of the in-house Advisory Ethics Committee for Animal Research (title: “Optimización del uso de MSCs alogénicas en el tratamiento de patologías articulares equinas: equilibrio inmunomodulación-inmunogenicidad” [“Optimizing the use of allogenic MSCs for treating equine joint pathologies: immunomodulation-immunogenicity balance”]; approval number: PI 15/16; approval date: 22 June 2021). Equine ACs were obtained post mortem at the University of Liverpool (UK) from healthy joints of animals euthanized for reasons unrelated to this study, thus ethics approval was not required but informed owner’s consent was obtained.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.