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Article History

Received: 14 August 2025

Accepted: 16 February 2026

First Online: 27 February 2026

Declarations

:

: The study was approved by the Ethics Committees at Gothenburg and Lund Universities or by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority. The need for written informed consent was waived in #2019–01274 Dnr 2024–08225-02, while all participants provided written informed consent before entering the following studies 2016/417, 2018/117, 2018/753, 2021–05734-02, respectively. We certify that the study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. The datasets from anonymized publicly available publications of the TCIA data was approved by the local ethics committee and data protection officer [6, 7].

: Not applicable.

: The following authors declare no financial or non-financial interests (MS, JM, JLU, MLe, MLa, OE, LE and ET). SFB acknowledges support from the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) [RP-2016–07-001]. This work was also supported by core funding from the Wellcome/EPSRC Centre for Medical Engineering at King’s College London [WT203148/Z/16/Z]. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care.