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Article History

Received: 5 September 2025

Accepted: 23 March 2026

First Online: 13 April 2026

Declarations

:

: This article does not contain any studies involving human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. The research is based entirely on publicly available network traffic datasets (CICIoT2023 and RT-IoT2022), which are anonymized and do not include any personally identifiable information. Therefore, ethical approval and informed consent were not required for this study. The work complies with standard ethical guidelines for research using publicly available data and adheres to principles of responsible data usage and reproducibility.

: All authors have given their informed permission to publish this research study. Ethical guidelines guided the investigation, and every participant was completely informed on the nature and goal of the research. Before each participant was included in the study, written permission was obtained from each one. To further respect participants’ privacy, all identifiable data has also been anonymized. This guarantees that the release of this study follows moral standards and protects the rights of the affected people.

: The authors declare no competing interests.