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Article History

Received: 9 August 2025

Accepted: 1 April 2026

First Online: 10 April 2026

Declarations

:

: This study analyzed the five most recent waves of HBSC, which are publicly available and contain only de-identified secondary data. As such, this research is exempt from institutional review board oversight. All procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committees and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Each HBSC survey received ethical approval from relevant national or regional ethics committees, and informed consent was obtained from all participants and their parents or legal guardians in each participating country.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.