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Authors
Qiu, Cailin
Zhang, Chendi
Qiu, Ning
Han, Xinyu
Zhang, Tianjie
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China (52408077)
Humanities and Social Sciences Research Program of the Ministry of Education (24YJCHZ234)
Shandong Provincial Natural Science Foundation (ZR2023QE242)
Ministry of Education Humanities and Social Sciences Research Planning Fund (24A10056036)
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Article History
Received: 13 October 2025
Accepted: 15 April 2026
First Online: 27 April 2026
Declarations
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: Ethical approval was not required for this study because the analysis was based on secondary, fully anonymised data obtained from a commercial fitness application. The dataset contained no personally identifiable information, and no intervention was conducted with human participants. According to the institutional ethics policy of Fuzhou University and national research regulations, studies using anonymised secondary data are exempt from formal ethical review. All procedures were performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki (2013 revision).
: Not applicable.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
