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Article History

Received: 19 December 2025

Accepted: 9 April 2026

First Online: 27 April 2026

Declarations

:

: This study utilized exclusively de-identified data from two publicly available critical care databases: MIMIC-IV version 2.2 ( ) and the eICU 2.0 ( ). Both databases comply with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Privacy Rule (45 CFR §164.514(a)) and contain only anonymized, de-identified patient records; all direct and indirect identifiers have been removed by the data custodians. Under the US Common Rule (45 CFR 46) and institutional review board (IRB) guidelines, this research qualifies as non-human subjects research and is exempt from formal ethical review, as it involves no interaction with living individuals and uses only pre-existing, fully de-identified data. Data access approvals were granted to one of the authors for both databases.

: Not applicable. This study used fully de-identified data from the database, which is compliant with the HIPAA Privacy Rule.

: The authors declare no competing interests.