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Article History

Received: 17 September 2025

Accepted: 14 April 2026

First Online: 25 April 2026

Declarations

:

: HRS was approved by the Health Sciences and Behavioral Sciences Institutional Review Board of the University of Michigan. ELSA was approved by the London Multi-Centre Research Ethics Committee, the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery & Institute of Neurology Joint Research Ethics Committee, the Berkshire Research Ethics Committee, the NRES Committee South Central-Berkshire, the South Central-Berkshire Research Ethics Committee. SHARE was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Mannheim and the Ethics Council of the Max Planck Society. CHARLS was approved by Institutional Review Board at Peking University. KLoSA was was approved by Institutional Review Board of Statistics Korea. MHAS was approved by the Institutional Review Board or Ethics Committee of the University of Texas Medical Branch, the INEGI and the Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública in Mexico. Written informed consent was obtained from each participant in the six studies. This study was a secondary analysis of publicly accessible data, and thus no ethical approval was required.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.