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Article History

Received: 17 December 2025

Accepted: 10 April 2026

First Online: 23 April 2026

Declarations

:

: The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Guangxi Normal University (approval number:20240315003). This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. For Study 1, informed consent was obtained from all participating secondary vocational students and their guardians prior to the questionnaire survey. Participants were informed of the purpose, procedures, and confidentiality of the study, and had the right to withdraw from the survey at any time without any negative consequences. For Study 2, the data were derived from the publicly available Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA 2018 Hong Kong) dataset, which has been approved by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) ethical review procedures. All data collection in PISA complied with international ethical standards, including obtaining appropriate consent from participants and their parents/guardians.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.