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Authors
Xiao, Jian
Shi, Shuyue
Liu, Xiaolin
Qian, Tiaotiao
Duan, Shifei
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Article History
Received: 22 August 2026
Accepted: 5 November 2026
First Online: 7 November 2026
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable. This study is a secondary analysis of fully anonymized, publicly available microdata from the OECD PISA 2022 database. Ethical review, informed consent, and parental consent procedures for the original PISA data collection were carried out by the OECD and the relevant authorities in each participating economy.
Consent for publication: Not applicable.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
