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Authors
Pham, Ngoc Bao Tram https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2008-3497
Zeng, Yijing
Fazil, Khairi Fakhri https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4284-8873
Mohd-Said, Nur-Ehsan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2891-327X
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Research Centre for Learning and Teaching Innovation, Faculty of Education
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Article History
Received: 30 September 2025
Accepted: 13 March 2026
First Online: 24 March 2026
Declarations
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: This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines of the Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Asia Pacific Language Centre, Asia Pacific University. All participants were informed about the purpose of the study, their rights, and data confidentiality. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.
: Consent for publication of the data included in this manuscript was obtained from all participants.
: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. One of the authors also served as an item writer for the test materials analysed in this study. This dual role is acknowledged as a potential source of bias; however, the study design and analytic procedures were established in advance, and the interpretation of findings was reviewed by the full author team.
