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Article History

Received: 7 April 2025

Accepted: 4 September 2025

First Online: 24 September 2025

Declarations

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: The animal experimental procedures were designed to minimise both the number of animals used and animal suffering. All animal experiments were conducted according to the guidelines for the proper conduct of animal experiments published by the Science Council of Japan. Ethical approval for the study was granted by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Kyushu University (approval number A22-283). The Animal Research Reporting of In Vivo Experiments (ARRIVE) guidelines for animal research were followed. All brain autopsies were performed with the consent of the legal next-of-kin or an individual with legal authority to grant permission for autopsy. The histological study of human tissue was approved by the Kyushu University Institutional Review Board for Clinical Research (22006-00).

: Not applicable.

: K.M. reports a grant from JSPS KAKENHI (Grant No. JP23K06965) and speaker honoraria from Novartis Pharma, Biogen Japan, Alexion Pharma, Chugai Pharmaceutical, Argenx Japan, and Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma Corporation. T.T. is employed by Sumitomo Pharma Co., Ltd. H.S. reports fellowships from the Japanese Society of Neurology, the Cell Science Research Foundation, and the Uehara Memorial Foundation. He is partially supported by the American Parkinson Disease Association Research Grant, the Multiple System Atrophy Coalition Research Grant, the State of Florida Ed and Ethel Moore Alzheimer’s Disease Research Program (24A08), and the Jaye F. and Betty F. Dyer Foundation Fellowship in progressive supranuclear palsy research. D.M. reports grants from JSPS KAKENHI (Grant No. JP24K10662) and the Health and Labour Sciences Research Grant on Intractable Diseases (Neuroimmunological Diseases) from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan (23FC2001); and speaking fees and/or honoraria from Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd., Ono Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Kyowa Kirin Co. Ltd., Novartis Pharma, Takeda Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., FP Co. Ltd., and Eisai Co. Ltd. E.T. has received honoraria from Novartis, Takeda Pharmaceutical, UCB Japan, Biogen Japan, and Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharmaceutical. Y.K. has received honoraria for lectures from UCB Japan, Novartis Pharma, Chugai Pharmaceutical. R.Y. has received honoraria from Argenx, Ono Pharmaceutical, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Eisai, Novartis, PDR Pharma, UCB Japan, and Kyowa Kirin. N.I. reports grants from JSPS KAKENHI (Grant No. JP24K02371), AMED Japan (Grant No. 24wm0625504s01001), the Health and Labour Sciences Research Grant on Intractable Diseases (Neuroimmunological Diseases) from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan (23FC1009), Sumitomo Pharma, Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd., Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, Novartis Pharma, Biogen Japan, Yamasa Corporation, Kyowa Kirin Co., Ltd., and Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim Co., Ltd.; and honoraria from Alexion Pharma, Novartis Pharma, Argenx, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, Biogen Japan, Takeda Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., UCB Japan, Ono Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd., Teijin Healthcare Co. Ltd., Amgen Inc., and Eisai Co. Ltd. H.T. reports grants from JSPS KAKENHI (Grant No. JP21K07465 and JP24K10626), the Health and Labour Sciences Research Grant on Intractable Diseases (Neuroimmunological Diseases) from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan (Grant No. 23FC1009), and the Naito Foundation; and consultancy fees, speaking fees, and/or honoraria from Alexion Pharma G.K., Biogen Japan Ltd., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Cosmic Corporation Co. Ltd., Eisai Co. Ltd., Kowa Co. Ltd., Kyowa Kirin Co. Ltd., Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma Corporation, Novartis Pharma K.K., Ono Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Takeda Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., and UCB Japan Co. Ltd. J.K. reports research funds from Sumitomo Pharma, Daiichi Sankyo, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, and Yamasa Corporation; and consultancy fees, speaking fees, and/or honoraria from Novartis Pharma, Argenx, Biogen Japan, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd., Alexion Pharma, and Kyushu University. The other authors declare that they have no competing interests.