Article History
Received: 13 May 2022
Accepted: 5 September 2022
First Online: 13 September 2022
Declarations
:
: Not applicable since the secondary data provided by PISA does not contain any sensitive confidential information. Pseudonymisation is applied to data with ID numbers being assigned to all schools and students participating in the survey. As a result, the assessment data is completely anonymous in the published data files. Therefore, neither consent to participate nor ethics approval were required for the analyses.
: The authors consent to the publication of the manuscript in <i>Large-scale Assessments in Education</i>.
: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.