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Authors
Shange, Lungisile https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5451-5761
Tsawe, Mluleki https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0580-5508
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Article History
Received: 9 July 2025
Accepted: 15 May 2026
First Online: 21 May 2026
Declarations
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: The DHS surveys conducted in Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, and Zambia strictly followed ethical guidelines and received necessary approvals from relevant institutional review boards (IRBs). These included the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Science and Technology, the National Health Sciences Research Committee in Malawi, the National Health Research Ethics Committee of Nigeria, the Tropical Diseases Research Centre in Zambia, and the ICF Institutional Review Board [ , , , ]. Informed consent was obtained from all participants or their legal guardians, as applicable, before data collection, which included anthropometry, anaemia testing, HIV testing, and other biomarkers [ , , , ]. Confidentiality and privacy were maintained by assigning unique participant identifiers and securely storing data. Data analysis and reporting were conducted to ensure participant anonymity, adhering to the highest ethical standards for research. The data were obtained after getting approval from the DHS Program website.
: Not applicable.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
