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Authors
Wu, Yutong https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9597-1406
Li, Wenyue
Nie, Hewang
Zhou, Ziqi
Li, Jin
Gong, Yixiao
Lu, Songfeng https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4489-2488
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Science, Technology and Innovation Commission of Shenzhen Municipality (No.GJHZ20240218114659027)
Hubei Provincial Key Research and Development Plan (No.2024BAB049)
Changsha Science and Technology Project (No.kq2503009)
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Article History
Received: 29 April 2026
Accepted: 7 September 2026
First Online: 17 September 2026
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable. This study does not involve human participants, human data, or animal subjects; all experiments are conducted on publicly available benchmark datasets (CIFAR-10 and ImageNet).
Consent for publication: Not applicable.
Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Use of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies: ChatGPT was used solely for language polishing and readability improvement, all AI-assisted text was reviewed and edited by the authors.
