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Article History

Received: 12 December 2025

Accepted: 4 April 2026

First Online: 22 April 2026

Declarations

:

: All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. The study involved only the collection of bovine fecal samples, either from the farm floor or by non-invasive rectal sampling performed by a licensed veterinarian using a sterile examination glove. These procedures did not cause pain, suffering, distress, or lasting harm to the animals and fall below the threshold defined in Article 1(5)(f) of Directive 2010/63/EU, which excludes such non-harmful practices from the scope of animal experimentation legislation. Therefore, in accordance with Czech and EU regulations, no formal animal experiment approval was required for this study. Sampling was conducted with the consent of the farm owners.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.