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Article History

Received: 28 January 2025

Accepted: 21 September 2025

First Online: 23 February 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

: All methods and procedures involving human participants in this work were approved by the University of Wisconsin–Madison Institutional Review Board (2016–1093).

: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in this work.

: During the consent process, participants were informed that both group characteristics and datasets with individual responses may also be shared as part of the publication process, but that the data would not be linked to any identifiable information.

: None of the experiments were preregistered. The stimuli, datasets, and analysis code supporting the conclusions for all four experiments of this article are publicly available on OSF: [ ].

: A subset of these findings were presented at the 24th Annual meeting of the Vision Sciences Society in May 2024 held in St. Pete Beach, FL.