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Article History

Received: 27 March 2025

Accepted: 11 January 2026

First Online: 10 February 2026

Declarations

:

: The research was approved by the IRB at Washington University in St. Louis (ID #: 201102278).

: Each participant provided oral informed consent and received reimbursement of course credits.

: All authors have read and approved the final manuscript and consent to its publication in Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics .

: Trial-level data and analysis scripts for all experiments are available online ( ). Other experiment materials and code are available upon request. None of the experiments was preregistered.

: Not applicable.