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Article History

Accepted: 19 April 2025

First Online: 9 June 2025

Declarations

:

: All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Illinois at Chicago (Protocol # 2000–0676).

:  For all the studies reported, informed consent was obtained from all participants and responses were completely anonymous.

: The authors thank M. Anne Britt and Thomas D. Griffin for their valuable feedback and discussion, and research assistants Jen Eng, Gabriella Rodriguez, and Meaghan Schmugge for assistance with scoring. Data from Experiment 1 were previously reported in Hildenbrand and Wiley (). Portions of this work were completed as part of the first author’s master’s thesis.

: The authors have no relevant financial or nonfinancial interests to disclose.

: The data for this experiment is available on OSF (). Materials are available upon request to the authors. The experiments were not preregistered.