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Article History

Accepted: 17 June 2025

First Online: 22 July 2025

Declarations

:

: Approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board at Carnegie Mellon University (Study #2017_00000367). The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.

: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

: Patients consented to the publication of their anonymized data.

: The data and materials for all studies are available []. Study 2 [], Study 3 [], Study 4 [], and Study 5 [] were preregistered on AsPredicted.

: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

: Studies 2, 3, 4, and 5 were preregistered (see links in manuscript). Data, , and analysis code for this manuscript are available online (). This study was funded in part by a Doctoral Dissertation Research Improvement Grant from the National Science Foundation (Award #2333553) and a Small Undergraduate Research Grant from Carnegie Mellon University. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of our grantors. We declare no conflicts of interest. We acknowledge the support of the research assistants, friends, and family members who made this research possible.