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Authors
Cai, Yuejun Lawrance
Wong, Kin Fai Ellick
Kwong, Jessica Y. Y.
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
General Research Fund by RGC Hong Kong (#14612118)
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
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Article History
Accepted: 11 June 2025
First Online: 4 August 2025
Declarations
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: This study was approved by the Research Grant Council of Hong Kong and certify that the study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards (#14612118).
: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
: The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
: Following the American Psychological Association Journal Article Reporting Standards, all manipulations and measures and sample size determination were described in the following sections. All study materials, data, and analysis scripts were available on the Open Science Framework (OSF) page. Study 1 was preregistered on February 11, 2018 ( ). Study 2 was preregistered on January 15, 2023 ( ) . In the preregistration process, we specified the hypotheses, sample size and composition, data collection process, data inclusion criteria, and plan for analysis. The data files and analysis syntax can also be accessed on OSF (for Study 1: ; for Study 2: ) .
