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Authors
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2025M773450)
Ministry of Education Key Projects of Philosophy and Social Sciences Research (24JZDW003)
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Article History
Received: 3 July 2025
Accepted: 6 March 2026
First Online: 16 April 2026
Declarations
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: This empirical study used anonymized data from the publicly available PISA 2012 dataset administered by the OECD. The original PISA project obtained ethical approval and informed consent through national educational authorities in each participating country, following protocols. According to institutional and journal guidelines, no additional ethics approval was required.
: All participants had previously provided consent under the original data collection procedures of the PISA project.
: Not applicable.
: No authors reported any financial or other conflicts of interest in relation to the work described.
