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Authors
Zhang, Jingyu https://orcid.org/0009-0007-4651-0283
Lüdtke, Oliver https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9744-3059
Robitzsch, Alexander https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8226-3132
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
IPN - Leibniz-Institut für die Pädagogik der Naturwissenschaften und Mathematik
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Article History
Received: 8 April 2025
Accepted: 10 March 2026
First Online: 23 April 2026
Declarations
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: The authors declare no relevant financial or non-financial competing interests.
: Not applicable.
: Not applicable.
: Not applicable.
: All supplementary materials (Supplement A to D) are available at . The data in the simulation studies can be fully reproduced using the provided code in Supplement D. None of the results reported were preregistered.
